UNOSAT

Collaborations

	Agency for Technical Cooperation and Development (ACTED) Agency for Technical Cooperation and Development (ACTED)is a non-governmental organization focused on intervention and disaster relief for affected areas. Their work covers emergency relief, food security, health promotion, education and training, economic development, microfinance, advocacy and institutional support, and cultural promotion. Its work with UNOSAT includes production of geographic and geospatial information in order to aid the decision making processes. www.acted.org
	Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC) The collaboration between UNOSAT and the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC) allows for better and more responsive disaster relief - both immediate and long term - for countries in Asia and the Pacific. ADPC focuses on strengthening their national disaster risk management systems with practical solutions as well as supporting the advancement of safer communities and sustainable development. The two organizations share the same high-level international agendas which make collaboration relevant and beneficial. UNOSAT and ADPC have also undertaken many training and capacity development events further expanding their involvement. www.adpc.net
	European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) CERN hosts the world’s largest particle physics laboratory. It was at CERN the World Wide Web was born. It’s IT infrastructure and Internet-access is of immense benefit to UNOSAT. www.cern.ch
	The Citizen Cyberscience Centre The Citizen Cyberscience Centre is a partnership between UNITAR, CERN and the University of Geneva to promote citizen-based science on the Web including collaborative computing and participatory mapping. Since 2006 CCC partners are studying innovative methods and technologies to develop the participation of citizens in developing regions where crowdsourcing provides an appropriate participatory and low-cost solution. As part of the CCC activities, UNOSAT is currently testing an experimental system for geo-tagging web content called HPGloe. www.citizencyberscience.net
	Digital Globe UNOSAT and Digital Globe work together to quickly provide vast amounts of information to member countries in times of crisis. Digital Globe owns and operates a constellation of high-resolution, commercial, earth imaging satellites making access to information fast and reliable. By implementing their web-based platform, called FirstLook, they can provide a large amount of imagery very quickly for major global events. UNOSAT both subscribes to and shares the FirstLook service with other UN agencies to create a more cohesive and collaborative environment. www.digitalglobe.com
	e-GEOS e-GEOS, a Telespazio (80%) / ASI (20%) company, is a leading international provider in the geo-spatial business. They offer a complete range of products and services in the Earth Observation and geo-spatial application domains, both based on VHR optical  (i.e.GeoEye, Ikonos, QuickBird, WorldView 1-2 etc.) and radar satellites  (i.e. COSMO-SkyMed 4 satellite constellation) as well as on aerial surveys. UNOSAT uses many images from e-GEOS to provide actionable information to humanitarian actors. www.e-geos.it
	Architectes de l'urgence / Emergency Architects Emergency Architects foundation labors alongside people who have lost everything, helping them get back to a semblance of normal life. www.archi-urgent.com
	Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) The partnership between the Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) and UNOSAT creates greater consistency and reliability for international needs. With ESRI's specialized GIS software (ArcGIS), they are able to provide specific information and applications that benefit the humanitarian effort and those involved in mapping activities. ESRI's long history and consistent management provides consumers with reliability and stability. www.esri.com
	European Research Council (ERC) The European Research Council (ERC) is an autonomous organization that funds investigatory research within the European Union. They are supported by the European Commission and supplemented by contributions from associated states. With the help of UNOSAT, the ERC aims to enhance the performance of the European research system. erc.europa.eu
	European Space Agency (ESA) ESA is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the exploration of space. www.esa.int
	European Space Imaging (ESI) European Space Imaging provides high-resolution imagery from information that is collected on a daily basis. Their location in Europe makes production and access to this imagery very quick; a key benefit for UNOSAT which often needs information sent on a same day timeframe. ESI has a long-term relationship with many European and other international organizations working in disaster management, security, environmental monitoring and satellite mapping. www.euspaceimaging.com
	Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO-UN) The FAO leads international efforts to defeat hunger. Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy. FAO is also a source of knowledge and information helping developing countries and countries in transition modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices and ensure good nutrition for all. Founded in 1945, FAO have focused special attention on developing rural areas, home to 70 percent of the world's poor and hungry people. www.fao.org
	Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System (GDACS) The Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System (GDACS) is a cooperative framework which aims to consolidate and strengthen the network of providers and users of disaster information worldwide. GDACS typically covers an event throughout the response and relief phases. UNOSAT is often responsible for providing disaster assessment and satellite information in cases where a disaster alert has been activated through GDACS. www.gdacs.org
	Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) Overseen by the World Bank, the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) supports the development of risk assessments and aids the decision making processes. They also work to reduce vulnerabilities of communities and cities resulting from rapid urbanization. Their work with UNOSAT has increased their access to spatial analysis as well as risk mapping that aids disaster preparedness. www.gfdrr.org
	Google Google Crisis Response makes critical information more accessible around natural disasters and humanitarian crises, such as hurricanes and earthquakes. This initiative is a project of Google.org, which uses Google's strengths in information and technology to build products and advocate for policies that address global challenges. Google's contributions include: updated satellite imagery of the disaster area, charitable donations to organizations on-the-ground, outreach through Google web properties, and engineering tools, such as Google Person Finder and Landing Pages, designed to organize and coordinate critical response resources and information. Google and UNOSAT are also working together in an effort to continuously improve rapid access to accurate map data in times of disaster and humanitarian response. For example, UNOSAT serves as a conduit for UN agencies who may request Google Map Maker data for more than 150 countries around the world. www.google.org
	Human Rights Watch (HRW) Human Rights Watch is one of the world’s leading independent organizations dedicated to defending and protecting human rights. www.hrw.org
	International Charter on Space and Major Disasters The International Charter is a system of space data acquisition and delivery activated by participating space agencies in case of major natural and man-made disasters. UNOSAT acts as a user intermediary for requests emanating from UN agencies responding to natural disasters. In such cases, the Space Charter provides free satellite imagery and data that are used in UNOSAT Rapid Mapping Service to generate information and publish maps for the use of the UN Disaster Assessment Coordination (UNDAC) teams and other field teams. www.disasterscharter.org
	International Telecommunication Union (ITU) ITU is an international organization and a specialized agency of the United Nations created with the objective of facilitating peaceful relations, international cooperation among peoples and economic and social development by means of efficient telecommunication services with the purpose among others, of fostering international cooperation in the delivery of technical assistance to the developing countries to promote the development of their telecommunication networks and services, while taking into account the priority of telecommunications in securing human life. www.itu.int
	Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) UNICRI's is one of the 5 global Research and Training Institutes of the United Nations which report to the UN Secretary General. UNICRI carries out applied research, training, technical cooperation and documentation / information activities in the areas of Emerging Crimes and Anti-Human Trafficking; Security Governance and Counter Terrorism; Justice Reform, and Post-Graduate Training. www.unicri.it
	ITC ITC is the largest institute for international higher education in the Netherlands. It provides international postgraduate education, research and project services in the field of geo-information science and earth observation using remote sensing and GIS. The aim of ITC's activities is the international exchange of knowledge, focusing on capacity building and institutional development in developing countries and emerging economies. www.itc.nl
	Joint Research Centre (JRC) European Commission The European Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC) is a department (Directorate-General, DG) of the European Commission providing independent scientific and technological support for EU policy-making. It works closely on the development of EU legislation with the relevant Commission services, such as the Agricultural, Enterprise, Environment, and Health and Consumer Protection DGs. Knowledge comes from specific application- and issue-oriented research within the seven JRC Institutes and close co-operation with over 1000 public and private organisations in 150 networks in Member State and applicant countries. The JRC also liases with non-EU and global scientific and standard-setting bodies. ec.europa.eu/dgs/jrc
	Kongsberg Satellite Services (KSAT) Kongsberg Satellite Services (KSAT) is a world leading commercial satellite center ideally located for TT&C, launch support, orbit support and near real time earth observation service. They have contributed to UNOSAT's work to monitor security risks. Their unique location also enables quick access to information for humanitarian needs. www.ksat.no
	MFB-GeoConsulting MFB-GeoConsulting specialises in software and applications for optical and radar earth observation analysis involving Leica geospatial tools. Through this partnership UNOSAT has access to software that powers the Geospatial Imaging Chain. www.mfb-geo.com
	NOVACOM Services NOVACOM Services is a private company based in France, Novacom Services is a subsidiary of CLS (Collecte Localisation Satellites), the exclusive operator of the Argos system, and the CNES (the french space agency). NOVACOM offers tracking and data collection services, providing customized products and end-to-end solutions from the field terminal to the information delivery. www.novacom-services.com
	UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) OCHA's mission is to mobilize and coordinate effective and principled humanitarian action in partnership with national and international actors in order to alleviate human suffering in disasters and emergencies, advocate for the rights of people in need, promote preparedness and prevention, facilitate sustainable solutions.  Since 2003, OCHA has benefitted from UNOSAT’s Humanitarian Rapid Mapping service which provides timely geospatial information and satellite derived analysis to all humanitarian agencies to facilitate decision making, in-field coordination, reporting and monitoring. www.ocha.org
	Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) is the principle human rights office within the United Nations which attempts to implement human rights standards with partners at the country and local level, thereby establishing greater country engagement.  UNOSAT and OHCHR work together, specifically on targeted human rights missions and investigations, to assess geographical areas and research potential human rights violations.  OHCHR increasingly relies on UNOSAT for satellite solutions to human rights issues. www.ohchr.org
	Spot Image (SISA) Spot Image is a leading satellite data provider. The company offers data from a number of different satellites: SPOT, Landsat, VEGETATION, Ikonos, Quick Bird and Radarsat. Spot Image is also head of the SARCOM consortium distributing ERS and Envisat products. www.spotimage.fr
	Télécoms Sans Frontières Télécoms Sans Frontières is the leading international NGO specializing in emergency telecommunications. TSF deploys within 24 hours on natural disasters and humanitarian crisis to provide satellite communication facilities to NGOs, rescue teams, UN Agencies and affected populations. www.tsfi.org
	Trimble Though best known for GPS technology, Trimble integrates a wide range of positioning technologies including GPS, laser, optical and inertial technologies with application software, wireless communications, and services to provide complete commercial solutions. www.trimble.com
	United Nations Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) UNICEF is mandated by the United Nations General Assembly to advocate for the protection of children's rights, to help meet their basic needs and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential. UNICEF is guided by the Convention on the Rights of the Child and strives to establish children's rights as enduring ethical principles and international standards of behavior towards children. UNOSAT has teamed with UNICEF’s Emergency Programmes, Early Warning & Preparedness (EMOPS-EWP) to ensure satellite imagery and related solutions are available to UNICEF. www.unicef.org
	United Nations Development Program (UNDP) The United Nations Development Program (UNDP), specifically the Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery (BCPR), works globally to restore quality of life for men, women and children who have been devastated by natural disaster or violent conflict. They often request satellite imagery maps and analysis from UNOSAT in order to assist UN country teams as well as national actors. This collaboration caters to early recovery and development with the many agencies and country offices involved. www.undp.org
	United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) The primary purpose of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is to protect the rights and wellfare of refugees. They work with UNOSAT to locate the displaced after natural disasers with satellite mapping analysis in order to provide aid. Satellite mapping has also increased UNHCR's ability to improve human security monitoring. This collaboration creates expanded cooperation to support specific emergencies and potential risk preparedness. www.unhcr.org
	United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) The United Nations Human Settlements Programme, UN-HABITAT, is the United Nations agency for human settlements. It is mandated by the UN General Assembly to promote socially and environmentally sustainable towns and cities with the goal of providing adequate shelter for all. www.unhabitat.org
	University of Geneva (UNIGE) The University of Geneva is a public university, founded in 1559, devoted to research, teaching and the exchange of ideas.  UNOSAT and The University of Geneva have a steady collaboration, focusing on areas such as Geomatics and new technologies.  They also work together regularly on Citizen Cyberscience Center endeavors.  www.unige.ch
	University of Copenhagen The University of Copenhagen is largest institution of research and education in Denmark. The University works with UNOSAT regularly and offers a Master of Disaster Management programme, supplemented by courses on geospatial information for disaster response provided by UNOSAT. This collaboration has grown from increasing demand and improved technologies in many of their operational areas, such as GIS database information and tools. www.ku.dk
	World Bank The World Bank is an independent and specialized agency of the United Nations. It acts as an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programs. Its goal is to reduce poverty by providing aid in a developmental capacity. The World Bank teams up with UNOSAT and other actors for collaborative mapping purposes which support the development of nations. www.worldbank.org
	World Food Programme The World Food Programme is “the food aid arm of the United Nations system.”  Their primary purpose is to support social and economic development, meet emergency food needs, and promote world food security.  By increasing their use of geospatial information for crisis preparation and response with the help of UNOSAT, the WFP is better able to obtain their information requirements in order to meet their goals of food aid relief.  WFP and UNOSAT have agreed to work together to expand their cooperation in information exchange, data sharing, and joint geospatial products. www.wfp.org
	World Meteorological Organization (WMO) The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations dedicated to providing information related to the earth's atmosphere, its interaction with the oceans, the climate it produces and the resulting distribution of water resources for the international community. UNOSAT and the WMO have teamed up to use satellite imagery and applications to address global challenges and human safety. www.wmo.int

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Part of the Politics series
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A political party is a political organization that typically seeks to influence government policy, usually by nominating their own candidates and trying to seat them in political office. Parties participate in electoral campaigns, educational outreach or protest actions. Parties often espouse an expressed ideology or vision bolstered by a written platform with specific goals, forming a coalition among disparate interests.

Contents   [hide]  1 Regulation of political parties 2 Voting systems 2.1 Dysfunctionality of the Party System 3 Partisan style 3.1 Nonpartisan 3.2 Single dominant party 3.3 Two political parties 3.4 Multiple political parties 4 Party funding 5 Colors and emblems for parties 6 International organizations of political parties 7 Types of political parties 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links

[edit]Regulation of political parties

The freedom to form, declare membership in, or campaign for candidates from a political party is considered a measurement of a state's adherence to liberal democracy as a political value. Regulation of parties may run from a crackdown on or repression of all opposition parties, a norm for authoritarian governments, to the repression of certain parties which hold or promote views which run counter to the general ideology of the state's incumbents (or possess membership by-laws which are legally unenforceable).

Furthermore, in the case of far-right, far-left and regionalist parties in the national parliaments of much of the European Union, mainstream political parties may form an informal cordon sanitaire which applies a policy of non-cooperation towards those "Outsider Parties" present in the legislature which are viewed as 'anti-system' or otherwise unacceptable for government.Cordon Sanitaires, however, have been increasingly abandoned over the past two decades in multi-party democracies as the pressure to construct broad coalitions in order to win elections - along with the increased willingness of outsider parties themselves to participate in government - has led to many such parties entering electoral and government coalitions.^[1]

Starting in the second half of the 20th century modern democracies have introduced rules for the flow of funds thru party coffers, e.g. the Canada Election Act 1976, the PPRA in the U.K. or the FECA in the U.S.. Such political finance regimes stipulate a variety of regulations for the transparency of fundraising and expenditure, limit or ban specific kinds of activity and provide public subsidies for party activity, including campaigning.

[edit]Voting systems

The type of electoral system is a major factor in determining the type of party political system. In countries with first past the post voting systems there is an increased likelihood for the establishment of a two party system. Countries that have a proportional representation voting system, as exists throughout Europe, or to a greater extent preferential voting systems, such as in Australia or Ireland, three or more parties are often elected to public office.

[edit]Dysfunctionality of the Party System

Filipino Political Scientist Ramon Merza Ignacio espouses the idea that once a President or a Prime Minister is elected to office, he should renounce party affiliation. Membership in any political party is dysfunctional as it becomes divisive - among the legislative branch and to the general electorate. The Presidency or the Prime Ministership should not be for the party but for the people, irrespective of party affiliation.

[edit]Partisan style

Partisan style varies from government to government, depending on how many parties there are, and how much influence each individual party has.

[edit]Nonpartisan

In a nonpartisan system, no official political parties exist, sometimes reflecting legalrestrictions on political parties. In nonpartisan elections, each candidate is eligible for office on his or her own merits. In nonpartisan legislatures, there are no typically formal party alignments within the legislature. The administration of George Washington and the first few sessions of the United States Congress were nonpartisan. Washington also warned against political parties during his Farewell Address.^[2] In the United States, the unicameral legislature of Nebraska is nonpartisan. In Canada, the territorial legislatures of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut are nonpartisan. In New Zealand, Tokelau has a nonpartisan parliament. Many city and county governments^[vague] are nonpartisan. Nonpartisan elections and modes of governance are common outside of state institutions.^[3]Unless there are legal prohibitions against political parties, factions within nonpartisan systems often evolve into political parties.

[edit]Single dominant party

In single-party systems, one political party is legally allowed to hold effective power. Although minor parties may sometimes be allowed, they are legally required to accept the leadership of the dominant party. This party may not always be identical to the government, although sometimes positions within the party may in fact be more important than positions within the government. China is an example; others can be found in Fascist states, such as Nazi Germany between 1934 and 1945. The single-party system is thus usually equated withdictatorships and tyranny.

In dominant-party systems, opposition parties are allowed, and there may be even a deeply established democratic tradition, but other parties are widely considered to have no real chance of gaining power. Sometimes, political, social and economic circumstances, and public opinion are the reason for others parties' failure. Sometimes, typically in countries with less of an established democratic tradition, it is possible the dominant party will remain in power by using patronage and sometimes by voting fraud. In the latter case, the definition between Dominant and single-party system becomes rather blurred. Examples of dominant party systems include the People's Action Partyin Singapore, the African National Congress in South Africa and the Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro in Montenegro. One party dominant systems also existed in Mexico with the Institutional Revolutionary Party until the 1990s, in the southern United States with theDemocratic Party from the late 19th century until the 1970s, in Indonesia with the Golongan Karya (Party of the Functional Groups) from the early 1970s until 1998, and in Japan with the Liberal Democratic Party until 2009.

[edit]Two political parties

Two-party systems are states such as Jamaica, and Ghana in which there are two political parties dominant to such an extent that electoral success under the banner of any other party is almost impossible. One right wing coalition party and one left wing coalition party is the most common ideological breakdown in such a system but in two-party states political parties are traditionally catch all parties which are ideologically broad and inclusive.

The United States is widely considered a two-party system. Since the birth of the republic a conservative (such as the Republican Party) and liberal (such as the Democratic Party) party have usually been the status quo within American politics, with some exception. Third parties often receive little support and are not often the victors in many races. Despite this, there have been several examples of third parties siphoning votes from major parties that were expected to win (such as Theodore Roosevelt in the election of 1912 and Ross Perot in theelection of 1992).

The United Kingdom is widely considered^{[citation needed]} a two-party state, as historically power has alternated between two dominant parties (currently the Labour Party and the Conservative Party). However, the 2010 General Election resulted in a coalition government led by the Conservative Party and including the Liberal Democrats. There are also numerous other parties that hold a number of seats inParliament.

A plurality voting system usually leads to a two-party system, a relationship described by Maurice Duverger and known as Duverger's Law.^[4]

[edit]Multiple political parties

A poster for the European Parliamentelection 2004 in Italy, showing party lists

Multi-party systems are systems in which more than two parties are represented and elected to public office.

Australia, Canada, Pakistan, India, Ireland, United Kingdom and Norway are examples of countries with two strong parties and additional smaller parties that have also obtained representation. The smaller or "third" parties may form a part of a coalition government together with one of the larger parties or act independently from the other dominant parties.

More commonly, in cases where there are three or more parties, no one party is likely to gain power alone, and parties work with each other to form coalition governments. This has been an emerging trend in the politics of the Republic of Ireland since the 1980s and is almost always the case in Germany on national and state level, and in most constituencies at the communal level. Furthermore since the forming of the Republic of Iceland there has never been a government not led by a coalition (usually of the Independence Party and one other often the Social Democratic Alliance. Political change is often easier with a coalition government than in one-party or two-party dominant systems.^{[dubious – discuss]}

[edit]Party funding

Political parties are funded by contributions from

• party members and other individuals,

• organizations which share their political ideas or who stand to benefit from their activities or

• governmental public funding.^[5]

Political parties, still called factions by some, especially those in government, are lobbied vigorously by organizations, businesses andspecial interest groups such as trades unions. Money and gifts-in-kind to a party, or its leading members, may be offered as incentives. Such donations are the traditional source of funding for all right-of-centre cadre parties. Starting in the late 19th century these parties were opposed by the new founded left-of-centre workers' parties. They started a new party type, the mass membership party, and a new source of political fundraising, membership dues.

From the second half of the 20th century on parties which continued to rely on donations ran into mounting problems. Along with the increased scrutiny of donations there has been a long term contraction in party memberships in most western democracies which itself places more strains on funding. For example in the United Kingdom and Australia membership of the two main parties in 2006 is less than an 1/8 of what it was in 1950, despite significant increases in population over that period.

In some parties, such as the post-communist parties of France and Italy or the Sinn Féin party and the Socialist Party (Ireland), elected representatives of take only the average industrial wage from their salary as a representative or their entire earnings, while the rest goes into party coffers. Although these examples may be rare nowadays, "rent-seeking" continues to be a feature of many political parties around the world.^[6]

In the United Kingdom, it has been alleged that peerages have been awarded to contributors to party funds, the benefactors becoming members of the Upper House of Parliament and thus being in a position to participate in the legislative process. Famously, Lloyd Georgewas found to have been selling peerages. To prevent such corruption in the future, Parliament passed the Honours (Prevention of Abuses) Act 1925 into law. Thus the outright sale of peerages and similar honours became a criminal act. However, some benefactors are alleged to have attempted to circumvent this by cloaking their contributions as loans, giving rise to the 'Cash for Peerages' scandal.

Such activities as well as assumed "influence peddling" have given rise to demands that the scale of donations should be capped. As the costs of electioneering escalate, so the demands made on party funds increase. In the UK some politicians are advocating that parties should be funded by the state; a proposition that promises to give rise to interesting debate in a country that was the first to regulate campaign expenses (in 1883)..

In many other democracies such subsidies for party activity (in general or just for campaign purposes) have been introduced decades ago.Public financing for parties and candidates (during election timess and beyond) has several permutations and is increasingly common. Germany, Sweden, Israel, Canada, Austria and Spain are cases in point. More recently among others France, Japan, Mexico, theNetherlands and Poland have followed suit.^[7]

There are two broad categories of funding, direct, which entails a montetary transfer to a party, and indirect, which includes broadcast time on state media, use of the mail service or supplies. According to the Comparative Data from the ACE Electoral Knowledge Network, out of a sample of over 180 nations, 25% of nations provide no direct or indirect public funding, 58% provide direct public funding and 60% of nations provide indirect public funding.^[8] Some countries provide both direct and indirect public funding to political parties. Funding may be equal for all parties or depend on the results of previous campaigns or the number of candidates participating in an election.^[9] Frequently parties rely on a mix of private and public funding and are required to disclose their finances to the Election management body.^[10]

Funding can also be provided by foreign aid. International donors provide financing to political parties in developing countries as a means to promote democracy and good governance.^[6] Support can be purely financial or otherwise frequently is provided as capacity development activities including the development of party manifestos, party constitutions and campaigning skills.^[6] Developing links between ideologically linked parties is another common feature of international support for a party.^[6] Sometimes this can be perceived as directly supporting the political aims of political party, such as the support of the US government to the Georgian party behind the Rose Revolution. Other donors work on a more neutral basis, where multiple donors provide grants in countries accessible by all parties for various aims defined by the recipients.^[6] There have been calls by leading development think-tanks, such as the Overseas Development Institute, to increase support to political parties as part of developing the capacity to deal with the demands of donors to improve governance.^[6]

[edit]Colors and emblems for parties

Main article: see Political colour and List of political party symbols

Generally speaking, over the world, political parties associate themselves with colors, primarily for identification, especially for voter recognition during elections. Conservative parties generally use blue or black.^{[citation needed]} Pink sometimes signifies moderate socialist.Yellow is often used for libertarianism or classical liberalism. Red usually signifies leftist, communist or socialist parties^{[citation needed]}except in Uruguay where the "Partido Colorado" (red party) is a (politically) conservative party. In this case, the use of the color red comes from the origins of the party. Similarly the Republican Party in America is generally designated by the colour red. Green is the color forgreen parties, Islamist parties and Irish republican parties. Orange is sometimes a color of nationalism, such as in the Netherlands, in Israelwith the Orange Camp or with Ulster Loyalists in Northern Ireland; it is also a color of reform such as in Ukraine. In the past, Purple was considered the color of royalty (like white), but today it is sometimes used for feminist parties. White also is associated with nationalism. "Purple Party" is also used as an academic hypothetical of an undefined party, as a centralist party in the United States (because purple is created from mixing the main parties' colours of red and blue) and as a highly idealistic "peace and love" party [1]-- in a similar vein to a Green Party, perhaps. Black is generally associated with fascist parties, going back to Benito Mussolini's blackshirts, but also withAnarchism. Similarly, brown is often associated with Nazism, going back to the Nazi Party's brown-uniformed storm troopers.

Color associations are useful for mnemonics when voter illiteracy is significant.^{[citation needed]} Another case where they are used is when it is not desirable to make rigorous links to parties, particularly when coalitions and alliances are formed between political parties and other organizations, for example: Red Tory, "Purple" (Red-Blue) alliances, Red-green alliances, Blue-green alliances, Traffic light coalitions, Pan-green coalitions, and Pan-blue coalitions.

Political color schemes in the United States diverge from international norms. Since 2000, red has become associated with the right-wingRepublican Party and blue with the left-wing Democratic Party. However, unlike political color schemes of other countries, the parties did not choose those colors; they were used in news coverage of 2000 election results and ensuing legal battle and caught on in popular usage. Prior to the 2000 election the media typically alternated which color represented which party each presidential election cycle. The color scheme happened to get inordinate attention that year, so the cycle was stopped lest it cause confusion the following election.

The emblem of socialist parties is often a red rose held in a fist. Communist parties often use a hammer to represent the worker, a sickle to represent the farmer, or both a hammer and a sickle to refer to both at the same time.

The emblem of Nazism, the swastika or "hakenkreuz", has been adopted as a near-universal symbol for almost any organized hate group, even though it dates from more ancient times.

Symbols can be very important when the overall electorate is illiterate. In the Kenyan constitutional referendum, 2005, supporters of the constitution used the banana as their symbol, while the "no" used an orange.

[edit]International organizations of political parties

During the 19th and 20th century, many national political parties organized themselves into international organizations along similar policy lines. Notable examples are the International Workingmen's Association (also called the First International), the Socialist International (also called the Second International), the Communist International (also called the Third International), and the Fourth International, as organizations of working class parties, or the Liberal International (yellow), Hizb ut-Tahrir, Christian Democratic International and theInternational Democrat Union (blue). Organized in Italy in 1945, the International Communist Party, since 1974 headquartered in Florence and with sections in six countries, is an expanding global party. Worldwide green parties have recently established the Global Greens. The Socialist International, the Liberal International, and the International Democrat Union are all based in London. Some administrations (e.g.Hong Kong) outlaw formal linkages between local and foreign political organizations, effectively outlawing international political parties.

[edit]Types of political parties

The French political scientist Maurice Duverger drew a distinction between cadre parties and mass parties. Cadre parties were political elites that were concerned with contesting elections and restricted the influence of outsiders, who were only required to assist in election campaigns. Mass parties tried to recruit new members who were a source of party income and were often expected to spread party ideology as well as assist in elections. Socialist parties are examples of mass parties, while the British Conservative Party and the German Christian Democratic Union are examples of hybrid parties. In the United States, where both major parties were cadre parties, the introduction of primaries and other reforms has transformed them so that power is held by activists who compete over influence and nomination of candidates.^[11]

Klaus von Beyme categorized European parties into nine families, which described most parties. He was able to arrange seven of them from left to right: communist, socialist, green, liberal, Christian democratic, conservative and libertarian. The position of two other types, agrarian and regional/ethnic parties varied.^[12] Another category he failed to mention are Islamic political parties, such as Hizb ut-Tahrir.

[edit]See also

Politics portal

• Elite party
• List of political parties
• List of political parties by country
• List of political party symbols
• List of politics-related topics
• Particracy (a political regime dominated by one or more parties)
• Political colour
• Political finance
• Political faction (both pre- and within a modern party)
• Party class
• Party line (politics)
• The Party (politics)